One-year 'access' courses provide a foundation and an appropriate test before enrolment on a course of higher education for prospective students who lack the standard entry qualifications .sx Polytechnics have close links with commerce and industry , and many polytechnic students have jobs and attend on a part-time basis .sx Similar provision is made in Scotland in the 15 central institutions and a number of further education colleges , and in Northern Ireland by the University of Ulster .sx Institutes and colleges of higher education , formed by the integration of teacher training with the rest of higher education , account for a significant proportion of higher education students , and other further education colleges run some , usually specialised , higher education courses .sx Council for National Academic Awards .sx An increasing number of students on higher education courses in Great Britain outside the universities take courses leading to the qualifications of the Council for National Academic Awards ( CNAA) .sx The Council awards degrees and other academic qualifications comparable in standard with those granted by the universities .sx The courses range from science and technology to the arts , social studies , business studies and law , but the proportion of technology , business or other broadly vocational courses is much higher than in universities .sx Since 1987 institutions running CNAA-approved courses have been able to apply to have delegated responsibility for approving and reviewing their own courses .sx By August 1990 a total of 40 institutions had been accredited by the CNAA for taught degree courses .sx Vocational Qualifications .sx The National Council for Vocational Qualifications ( NCVQ ) was set up in 1986 to reform and rationalise the vocational qualifications system in England , Wales and Northern Ireland .sx The Council aims to make qualifications more relevant to the needs of employment by basing them on standards of competence set by industry .sx It is establishing a new framework of National Vocational Qualifications ( NVQs ) based on defined levels of achievement to which qualifications in all sectors can be assigned or accredited .sx By January 1990 nearly 200 qualifications drawn from 40 different employment sectors had been accredited .sx The aim is to have the framework for levels 1 to 4 ( from the most basic level to the management supervisory level ) fully operational by the end of 1992 , and eventually it is expected to extend the framework to cover all occupational levels up to and including the professions .sx The competence-based system is being extended in Scotland ( which already has its own modular system ) through a new system of Scottish Vocational Qualifications ( SVQs ) along the lines of NVQs .sx SVQs will be accredited by the Scottish Vocational Education Council ( see below) .sx Other Examining Bodies .sx The Business & Technician Education Council ( BTEC ) plans and administers a unified national system of courses at all level for students in industry , commerce and public administration in England , Wales and Northern Ireland .sx Courses leading to BTEC awards are available at polytechnics , colleges of further and higher education , and in some schools .sx The Scottish Vocational Education Council ( SCOTVEC ) is the principal examining and awarding body in the field of further education in Scotland .sx SCOTVEC is responsible for administering and developing the non-advanced SCOTVEC National Certificate and the advanced level Higher National Certificate and Higher National Diploma .sx Qualifications in a wide range of occupational areas are offered by the City and Guilds of London Institute , and a variety of qualifications in commercial and office practice are awarded by the Royal Society of Arts .sx Teacher Training .sx Courses and Qualifications .sx Almost all entrants to teaching in maintained and special schools in England and Wales complete a recognised course of initial teacher training .sx Such courses are offered by university departments of education as well as by many polytechnics and colleges .sx Non-graduates usually qualify by taking a four-year Bachelor of Education ( BEd ) honours degree .sx There are also specially designed two-year BEd courses - mostly in subjects where there is a shortage of teachers at the secondary level - for suitably qualified people .sx Graduates normally take a one-year Postgraduate Certificate of Education ( PGCE ) , and two-year PGCE courses are available in the secondary shortage subjects for those whose first degree in an associated subject included at least one year's study of the subject they intend to teach .sx Articled teacher courses , offering school-based teacher training for graduates , were introduced in September 1990 .sx Trainees , who receive a bursary , take on a progressively greater teaching load , and formal training is provided both in initial teacher-training institutions and in school by college tutors and school teachers .sx In 1989 the Government introduced a licensed teacher scheme in England and Wales to assist entry into the profession for people who may not have formal teacher-training qualifications but who have relevant qualifications and experience .sx Participants generally have to complete a period of two years as a licensed teacher before achieving qualified teacher status .sx Support is also offered for local initiatives to encourage mature people to return to teaching .sx In addition , the Government has made it easier for teachers trained abroad to take up posts in English and Welsh schools .sx In Scotland all teachers in education authority schools must be registered with the General Teaching Council for Scotland .sx It is government policy that all entrants to the teaching profession in Scotland should be graduates .sx New primary teachers qualify either through a four-year BEd course or a one - year postgraduate course of teacher training at a college of education .sx Teachers of academic subjects at secondary schools must hold a degree containing two passes in the subject which they wish to teach .sx In certain subjects , a relevant specialist diploma has been acceptable in place of a degree , but this provision is being phased out .sx Secondary teachers must undertake a one-year postgraduate training course .sx For music and technology , four-year BEd courses are also available , and for physical education all teachers take BEd courses .sx In Northern Ireland teacher training is provided by the two universities and the two colleges of education .sx The principal courses are BEd Honours ( four years ) , BA Honours ( Education ) and the one-year postgraduate Certificate of Education .sx Measures to Improve Standards .sx The Government has taken steps to improve the quality of teaching by revising selection , training and placement procedures for new teachers , and by making available more in-service training opportunities .sx Management training courses for head teachers are also being provided .sx The Government believes that more systematic planning is required by schools and local education authorities to match in-service training to both the career needs of teachers and to the curricular needs of schools .sx A major new in-service training programme to improve the quality of teaching in schools and institutions of further education was introduced under the Education ( No 2 ) Act 1986 ( see p 178) .sx Measures to strengthen initial teacher training in England , Wales and Northern Ireland have included the issuing of criteria which courses must meet and the establishment of the Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education to review courses against the criteria .sx The Government intends to establish a national framework allowing teachers' employers in England and Wales to appraise the performance of teachers .sx Local education authorities , voluntary-aided schools and grant-maintained schools will be able to decide whether and how quickly to introduce appraisal .sx In Scotland all courses have been revised following recommendations of working parties on teacher training .sx All new pre-service and major in-service courses provided by colleges of education must be approved by the Scottish Education Department and a validating body .sx Local education authorities are to be asked to implement national guidelines for the introduction of systematic schemes of staff development and appraisal for teachers .sx The Government has taken reserve powers requiring authorities to operate schemes prescribed by it in the event of a breakdown of voluntary agreements .sx Adult and Continuing Education .sx The scope of adult and continuing education has widened in recent years .sx In addition to the development of the individual through cultural , physical and craft pursuits , it now covers basic education ( for example , in literacy and numeracy ) ; education for disadvantaged groups and those with special needs , such as ethnic minorities or disabled people ; consumer education ; health education ; and pre-retirement education .sx Continuing education also includes training for those in employment to enable them to keep pace with technological change .sx The Government has taken a number of initiatives to improve opportunities for both adult and continuing education .sx In 1982 it launched the Professional , Industrial and Commercial Updating Programme ( PICKUP ) , designed to help colleges , polytechnics and universities to meet the need to up-date and broaden the skills of those in mid-career in industry , commerce and the professions .sx By 1992 the Government aims to have one in ten of Britain's workforce attending job skills updating courses every year under PICKUP .sx The availability of open learning opportunities has been extended with the formation in 1987 of the Open College , an independent company set up with government support .sx The College brings together broadcasters , educationists and sponsors , and provides vocational education and training courses below degree level .sx Over 150,000 people have taken courses since 1987 and the College has delivered training for about 1,000 firms .sx Up to pounds12 million is being allocated by the Government for the College's commercial activities as well as pounds6 million for broadcasting .sx The Open College of the Arts , also launched in 1987 , offers an art foundation course to those wishing to study at home .sx Apart from provision for mature students at universities , courses are offered by the Open University , further education colleges , adult education centres , residential colleges , extra-mural departments of universities and other bodies such as voluntary organisations .sx Most of the provision is made by the local education authorities in a wide variety of establishments , including schools used for adult evening classes and 'community schools' , which offer educational , social and cultural opportunities for the wider community .sx A majority of courses are part time .sx Local authorities also maintain or aid many of the short-term residential colleges or centres which run courses lasting between a weekend and a fortnight .sx Long-term residential colleges , grant-aided by central government departments , have courses of one or two years and aim to provide a liberal education for adults with few or no formal academic qualifications .sx Most students admitted are entitled to full maintenance grants .sx University extra-mural departments and the Workers' Educational Association , the largest recognised voluntary educational body in Britain , offer extended part-time courses of liberal studies .sx They also run short courses for special ( including vocational ) interest .sx Various kinds of education and training are provided by many other organisations , for example , the National Federation of Women's Institutes , the Young Men's Christian Association and the Pre-Retirement Association .sx The National Institute of Adult Continuing Education is a centre of information , research , development work and publication for adult and continuing education .sx It also acts as a channel of co-operation and consultation for the many interested organisations in England and Wales .sx The Institute administers with government funding the Unit for the Development of Adult Continuing Education , which undertakes research and development work .sx The Institute's counterpart in Scotland is the Scottish Institute of Adult and Continuing Education .sx The Adult Literacy and Basic Skills Unit ( ALBSU ) is the central focus for adult literacy , numeracy and communications skills in England and Wales .sx A three-year literacy and numeracy initiative was launched in 1989 as a joint venture between the Government and the BBC .sx It involves the use of television and radio and specially printed material to improve the communications skills of an estimated 6 million adults .sx New nationally recognised qualifications in communication and numeracy are being developed , and a referral service is being created to put people in contact with 60 new open-learning centres and other local learning facilities .sx In Scotland the Scottish Community Education Council advises the Government and promotes all community education matters , including adult literacy and basic education , and the youth service .sx In Northern Ireland the Council for Continuing Education advises the Department of Education on adult and continuing education matters .sx The role of the Council is under review .sx Teaching Methods .sx The general pattern of teaching and learning on full-time courses of higher education remains a mixture of lectures ; prescribed or suggested reading ; seminars and tutorials ; essays , exercises and tests ; and , where appropriate , practical work or work experience .sx Educational aids are widely used .sx